The Battle of Merv (1510)




I have written this article because of the Battle of Merv's importance in the history of Western and Central Asia. Shah Ismail Safavi's victory over Muhammad Shaybani of the Uzbeks ensured that Iran would be Shiah and not Sunni, this legacy would follow down to contemporary Iran. Firstly however it is important to give a background to the diplomatic relations between both the Safavids and Uzbeks.

Failed diplomacy




Shah Ismail had come to power in 1501, he had forced conversions of Muslims from Sunni Islam to Shiah Islam and many massacres had ensued. Muhammad Haidar Dughlat remarked that there was no shortage of misdeeds on his part. However as Ismail expanded his dominions, his frontiers soon bordered that of the Sunni Uzbek Khanate under Muhammad Shaybani. There was a diplomatic exchange between both rulers with gifts and this letter was sent by Shah Ismail:

Hitherto the dust of dissension has never settled upon the skirts of our thoughts to such an extent as to raise a cloud of enmity. Let the path of fatherly conduct be observed on your side, and on this side the bonds of filial relationship shall be established.

[VERSE]

"Plant the tree of friendship: for its fruit will be the desire of your heart;
Root up the sapling of enmity, which produces countless griefs"

Muhammad Shaybani however replied with contempt for Shah Ismail:

It is fitting that every man follows the profession of his father, If he follows his mother he is going backwards. For Uzun Hasan withdrew himself from the circle of kings, on the day that he gaves his daughter in marriage to your father, as did Sultan Yakub, son Hasan, in giving him his sister.You had a right to make claims on your mother's side, so long as there was no son in the world like me, Sultan son of a Sultan. As the proverb says "Let the song do the father's work, and the daughter the mother's"

[VERSE]

"Kings know the secrets of the business of the realm
Oh! Hafiz, thou beggars sitting in the corner, do not complain"

If you place your foot on the step of sovereignty think of your own danger

[VERSE]

"He may clasp the bride of sovereignty firmly to his breast,
Who dares to kiss her admit the clashing of keen swords"

Muhammad Shaybani sent a staff and a beggar's bowl to remind Shah Ismail of his Sufi background and to advise return to the profession of his ancestors as a Sufi pir (master).

Shah Ismail returned the compliment by sending a spinning wheel and spindle with the reply:

You wrote in your letter to me, "Whosoever would clasp the bride of sovereignty close to his breast...." I, too, say the same thing, and behold, I have bound on the girdle to offer your fight, and have placed the foot of contest in the stirrup of fierce warfare. If you come out to meet me face to face in battle, our claims shall be thereby decided. And if you will not fight go and sit in a corner and busy yourself with the little present I am sending you

[VERSE]

"We have had many experiences in this monastery of Recompenses.
Whosoever quarrelled with the Family of the Prophet was defeated"

This was a declaration of war between the Safavids and Uzbeks

The Battle



Muhammad Shaybani was now in Merv and had disbanded his army by the time Shah Ismail's reply had arrived. Muhammad Shaybani dispatched messages to assemble an army from neighbouring districts. At this time Shah Ismail had arrived and pitched his camp near Merv. For three days there were skirmishes however Shah Ismail had to move from the broken ground where his camp was, the Uzbeks interpreted this as a sign that the Safavids had given up and were now turning back. The Uzbeks then marched out with a force of 20,000 men however Muhammad Shaybani's advisers, Amir Kambar and Amir Rai told him:

"Today we had better suspend hostilities and not pursue Shah Ismail; for Ubaid Ullah Sultan and Timur Sultan are encamped with 20,000 men at one farsakh (6.24 kilometres) ; tomorrow they will come and join their force to ours. Moreover, it has been positively ascertained that the enemy, in thus returning, either means to retreat or to draw us on to battle. If they wish to fight, we had better wait until more troops have assembled from the surrounding districts and engage them with as large a force as possible. And if they are really in flight, there is no necessity for the chief to pursue them in person. Ubaid Allah Sultan, Timur Sultan, and a few other Amirs can follow them, while His Majesty the Khan (Muhammad Shaybani) can travel quietly and leisurely, stage by stage, right into Iraq. It is evident that in the case of his retreating from this place, our man can drive him forward and rout him, so that he will not have strength to establish himself in Iraq"

Muhammad Shaybani replied to this advice however:

"You have said well, nevertheless, to make war on Shah Ismail is a holy war, and one of importance: moreover there will be much plunder, and it would be a sacrifice of gain in this world advantage in the next, were I to share this undertaking with the Sultans. We must be bold"

Thus Muhammad Shaybani set out to pursue Shah Ismail’s army. The Uzbeks marched onto the open plain and saw that the Safavids had halted with a force of 40,000 men. However the Uzbeks didn't have time to get into battle positions, since a contingent of Turkmens charged them and were able to outflank them. This caused a panic in the Uzbek army and they soon fled while the leaders of the army, including Muhammad Shaybani stood their ground until he and his officers were killed by the Safavids.

Shah Ismail had won a great victory over the Uzbeks

Aftermath



Many of the Uzbeks fled after taking their families from the fort at Merv. When news of this defeat reached Muhammad Shaybani's advisers, they fled and afterwards Shah Ismail entered Merv, thus followed a massacre of the people of Merv. Then Shah Ismail returned to Herat and had the khutba read in his name to curse the names of the first three caliphs, symbolising the triumph of a Shiah army over a Sunni one. When news of this victory reached the Mughal Emperor Babur in Kabul, he was compelled to ally himself with Shah Ismail and attempt to retake his ancestral lands in Maveranahr (Transoxania).However Babur would not hold onto these lands for long especially due to the fact that Babur had to dress as a Safavid Qizilbash due to the terms of his treaty with Shah Ismail. This led to a revolt by the Uzbeks who deemed this heretical due to its Shiah connotations. Babur would now turn to the rich lands of Hindustan and look to forge a new empire there.

The Ottomans however felt threatened by the growing strength of Shiah Islam under Shah Ismail, thus in 1514 they sent an army to crush the Safavids at Chaldiran. Thus reversing the fortunes of the Safavid dynasty.

Mughal Afghanistan, a case study of a foreign occupying force in Afghanistan and why it is relevant to today

I am writing this article to cover an often overlooked period of Afghanistan's history and which I feel is relevant to today,as Abu Fazl said:

Intelligent men of the past have considered Kabul and Qandahar as the twin gates of Hindustan, one (Qandahar) for the passage to Iran, and the other for that of Turan.By guarding these two places, Hindustan obtains peace from the raider, and global traffic by these two routes prosper.


The control of Afghanistan has always been vital for either the security of India or conquering it, and for its links to Turan (Central Asia) and Iran.

Suba Kabul

Abu Fazl wrote this about Kabul:

The country of Kabul is surrounded on all sides by lofty mountains, so that the sudden invasion of an enemy is attended with extreme difficulty.The Hindu Kush separates Kabul from Badakhshan and Balkh and seven routes are employed by the people of Turan in their marches to and fro.Three are by the Panjshir valley, the highest of which is over the Khawak Pass, below this is Tul, and the next lower in succession,Bazarak.The best of these is Tul, but it is somewhat long as its name implies.The most direct is over the heights called Haft Bachah.From Anderab two roads unite at the foot of the main pass and debouch on Pawan by the Haft Bachah.This is extremely arduous.Three other roads lead by Poran up the Ghorband valley.The nearest route is by the pass of Yangi-Yuli (the new road) which leads down to Waliyan and Kinjan; another is Qipchak Pass, Also somewhat easy to traverse, and the third is the Shibertu. In the summer when the rivers rise, it is by this pass that they descend by the way of Bamian and Talikan, but in the winter the Abdorah route is chosen, for at this season, all other routes but this are closed


In the Mughal period,the suba (province) of Kabul bordered Uzbek lands to the North, who controlled Balkh,the Uzbeks held sway over the lands of Mawaranahr (Transoxania),lands which the Mughals consider to be their birthright as heirs of Timur

Zahiruddin Muhammed Babur had been expelled from Samarkand by Muhammed Shayban Khan and sought a new kingdom, he saw Kabul as a suitable base for further conquests.Thus Kabul became his capital after taking advantage of the turmoil there to capture it.Babur's description of Kabul:

The province of Kabul is in the fourth clime in the middle of the civilised region.To the east are the Laghman region and Peshawar, in which highlands are Karnu and Ghor.As of this date those mountains are the strongholds of the Hazara and Negudari


It was from here that he would launch a series of raids into India which finally culminate in his victory at Panipat.



However Kabul remained his most loved city,since he said this of his lands east of the Khyber Pass,which he called Hindustan, this constituted the Indo-Gangetic plain which covers much of Pakistan and North India:

The cities and provinces of Hindustan are all unpleasant. All cities, all locales are alike. The gardens have no walls, and most places are flat as boards

Later under his successor, Humayun, it would become his base yet again when he returned from exile in Iran with troops to reconquer his empire from the Suri Pathans,he would not live long to see the benefits of his reconquest.

But in Akbar's reign,Kabul was once again a suba as he expanded Mughal power northwards and westwards in a series of campaigns in the late 16th Century.

His son,Jahangir hoped to use the turmoil in the Uzbek empire to achieve the Timurid dream of reconquering Samarkand and Bukhara,thus he didn't seek friendly diplomatic terms with the Uzbeks, however with the increasing power of Shah Abbas I of Safavid Iran, he changed his mind and sought to cultivate good relations with them but his overtures were not reciprocated as their leader, Imam Quli lost interest in the alliance.In 1628. Kabul faced a raid by Nazr Muhammed,the Uzbek governor of Balkh and Badakhshan, in light of the Mughal loss of Qandahar to Shah Abbas' forces,at this time Jahangir faced a rebellion from his son, Shah Jahan, back in India so he was unable to reinforce his army in Kabul.Nazr had hoped to subvert the Hindu Kush and share his spoils with the Persians,however it was repelled.

In Shah Jahan's reign,Kabul was used as a based by Murad Bakhsh and Aurangzeb to launch an attempted invasion of Balkh and Badakhshan,I will touch upon this in the next section.

Under Aurangzeb,there was a revolt by the Yusufzai tribe near Peshawar.Their leader was Muhammad Shah,who was able to rally support from the local Pathans (Pashtuns).The governor of Attock,Kamil Khan set out and fought with Muhammed Shah,he was able to defeat him and recover the imperial outposts.Shamshir Khan crossed the river Nilab and came towards Attock and entered the enemy's territory on the otherside of the river opposite Yusufzai lands.The rebels fled to the hills and waited for an opportunity, Muhammed Amin Khan Mir Bakhshi was despatched from court with 9,000 troops in all to crush this uprising,he harried and desolated their homes as far as possible,Aurangzeb ordered him to leave Shamshir Khan there and come to Lahore.

After Aurangzeb's death, the Mughal Empire began to weaken rapidly and in 1738, Nadir Shah Afshar,the ruler of Iran, was able to conquer Kabul and use it as a base to invade India,he later went to confront the Mughals at Karnal.From this point, never again would the Mughals control Kabul.

Suba Balkh and Suba Badakhshan (1646-7)

In the reign of Shah Jahan, in 1646, Shah Jahan's son Murad Bakhsh was sent north to conquer Balkh and Badakhshan,with the intent of making the Oxus River,the northernmost frontier of the Mughal empire.A description of the Oxus:

The Oxus, to the North of Balkh, is well known, and the fords and passages of that river have been reckoned up with fair accuracy.From time immemorial every horde of Skythic origin, Nagas,Sakas or Jatas must have passed these fords from the hills and valleys of the Central Asian divide on the way to India.The Oxus fords have seen men in millions making south for the valley of Badakhshan and Golden Gates of Central Asiatic ideal which lay yet farther south beyond the grim line of the Hindu Kush


An additional motive for this invasion was to punish Nazr Muhammad for his earlier raids in the 1620s,as well as restore law and order in the regional and suppress the Almans who have committed numerous attrocities.There was also a civil war between Nazr Muhammad and Abd Al-Aziz at this time.

The Mughal army advanced northwards and was able to take Qunduz and Balkh by mid-July, Murad Bakhsh had hoped to receive the submission of Nazr Muhammed in Balkh but this was not possible after Nazr fled.Murad was furious at this and dispatched Asalat Khan in hot pursuit,who was able to inflict a defeat on Uzbek forces near Shibarghan, however Nasr Muhammed was able to flee to Isfahan in Safavid Iran.Nevertheless It was a remarkable feat for an army of 60,000 men to conquer Balkh,Andkhud, Maimana, Shibarghan and Termez.

However Murad soon realised that Balkh and Badakhshan was a financial drain on the Mughal treasury,the revenue was just a tenth of that of Lahore and Delhi during Akbar's reign,this was a huge disappointment.Meanwhile the Uzbeks retained the iniative by launching raids along the Oxus frontier which aimed at destroying their supply lines and the productive countryside.If things couldn't get any worse, Nazr Muhammed returned from Iran to besiege Maimana.

In response to this, Shah Jahan dispatched Aurangzeb to confront the Uzbeks, this time round they proved to be more adept at using their horse-archers to counter-balance the firearms and light cannons of the Mughal army.In the end Shah Jahan finally gave into pressure from the epidemics,famines,Uzbek raids and the threat of a new winter, to finally order Aurangzeb to withdraw from Balkh and Badakhshan, and cede them to Nazr Muhammed.The campaign had cost the Mughals at least 20 million rupees,it is ironic that the now heavily Indianised Mughal army was overcome by the same Central Asian strategy which had been used by Babur so effectively at the beginning of his career.

Suba Qandahar


Qandahar had first been conquered by Babur in the 1520s, he held on it despite an attempted siege by Muhammed Shaybani Khan of the Uzbeks,where he was unable to take the citadel so he withdrew.After Babur's death, Humayun took over the rule of the Mughal empire but proved to be incompetent and lost all of Babur's hard won conquests in Hindustan to Sher Shah Suri.Humayun fled to Qazwin in the Safavid empire and begged Shah Tahmasp to grant him an army to reconquer Hindustan, which was granted on the condition that he cede Qandahar to the Safavids.

Humayun's successor, the greatest of the Mughals, Akbar, was able to regain Qandahar from the Safavids thanks to instability in Iran, thus the "gate" between Iran and Hindustan was securely in Mughal hands.However in Jahangir's reign,Shah Abbas I the greatest ruler of the Safavid empire was able to regain Qandahar, he put his annexation politely to Jahangir:

You will be aware that after the death of the Nawab Shah Jannat-Makan (Shah Tahmasp) great misfortunes befel Persia.Many territories which belonged to our saintly family passed out of possession, but when this suppliant at the throne of Grace became sovereign, he, by God's help, and the excellent measures of friends, recovered the hereditary lands which were in the possession of enemies. As Qandahar was held by agents of your lofty family, I regarded you as myself, and did not make any objection. From feelings of unity and brotherhood we waited, thinking that you would, after the manner of your ancestors who are in Paradise, voluntarily take the matter into your consideration.


This gave the Uzbeks confidence to raid Kabul as mentioned earlier, and left the Mughals vulnerable.Later after regaining Qandahar for a short period, Jahangir's successor, Shah Jahan lost it again because of a Kurdish turncoat, Ali Mardan Khan who handed over Qandahar to the Safavids.In reaction to this treachery, Shah Jahan imposed "restraint to this merchants from trading in Persia".In 1652,Aurangzeb tried in vain to reconquer Qandahar but from then onwards, Qandahar would remain in Safavid hands,Aurangzeb would be more focused on conquering the Deccan.

Thus Afghanistan was to remain divided between the Iranians in Herat,Farah and Qandahar in the West, the Uzbeks in Balkh,Qunduz and Badakhshan in the North and finally the Mughals in Kabul,Ghazni and Gardez in the East.

Russia and Britain
Frozen diplomacy

Nov 5th 2009 | MOSCOW
From The Economist print edition
More of an update than a reset


EVER since the new American administration popularised the phrase, it has been fashionable to talk of a “reset” with Russia. Few relationships have needed resetting more than the one between Russia and Britain. It has been all but frozen since Russia refused to hand over Andrei Lugovoi, an ex-KGB officer suspected of murdering his former colleague (and British citizen), Alexander Litvinenko, in London in 2006. Diplomats have been expelled, contacts between security services severed and visa restrictions imposed.
On November 1st David Miliband, Britain’s foreign secretary, flew to Moscow for talks with his Russian counterpart, Sergei Lavrov. It was more of an update than a reset. His host was courteous, which is progress. The two men signed joint statements on nuclear non-proliferation, Afghanistan and the Middle East. Yet none of the sticky bilateral issues was resolved—nor was any expected to be. Mr Miliband repeated Britain’s request to hand over Mr Lugovoi, only to hear, yet again, Moscow’s response that this would be against Russia’s constitution (which is sacred unless for lengthening presidential terms). For now, at least, Mr Lugovoi will carry on as an elected member of the Russian parliament.


Britain’s policy towards Russia stands out among other European countries, including France, Germany and Italy, which do not like to rattle the Kremlin and disrupt good business ties and gas supplies. Russia has mobilised politicians, academics and businessmen to lobby for it, with Gerhard Schröder, a former German chancellor who works for Gazprom, Russia’s gas monopoly, as a prime example. Britain has its fair share of Kremlin apologists, too.
Yet Britain does not depend on Russia for gas. And although it is one of the biggest investors in Russia, thanks to BP’s 50% stake in the TNK-BP oil company, the rough treatment the British firm received in its dispute with Russian shareholders left the aftertaste of a broken lip. In some areas, such as Russia’s war with Georgia, Britain has been especially vocal. This has infuriated the Kremlin. Whether Mr Lavrov actually exploded with the outburst, “who are you to fucking lecture us?”, the phrase summarises the feelings in the Kremlin remarkably accurately.
But though it is an irritant, Britain is also a great magnet for Russia’s elite, who like to buy expensive properties in London and to send their children to smart private schools. What makes Britain attractive to them and to the 250,000 Russians who live there is exactly what makes it so awkward to deal with: its obsession with laws and freedoms.
Indeed, Britain has long been viewed in Russia as a haven. Ivan the Terrible, who proposed to Elizabeth I, contemplated it as a possible refuge; Russian political émigrés like Alexander Herzen chose it as their home. As soon as any Russian businessman senses the first whiff of the Kremlin’s wrath, he heads for Heathrow. London is full of Russian business “refugees”, as well as the children of the Russian political elite. Diplomatic rows seem to have little effect on this. Indeed, for many people the less contact there is between the Russian and British security services, the more attractive Britain becomes.

http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=14803283

my own comments

having visited Russia a few months ago and made friends with a few Russians there, I can say that Russians are indeed fond of visiting the UK and do think highly of the country regardless of diplomatic disputes which are ultimately rooted in the poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko in 2006 and the demand by the UK to extradite Andrei Lugavoi from Russian soil.

Dalai Lama visits Arunachal Pradesh

Dalai Lama in Tibet border visit



Dalai Lama: "The ultimate source of happiness, successful life, is within ourselves"

Thousands of people have turned out to welcome the Dalai Lama as he makes a controversial visit to a monastery close to the Tibetan border.
The exiled Tibetan spiritual leader is in Tawang in India's state of Arunachal Pradesh, itself a source of dispute between Beijing and Delhi.
Beijing has accused the Dalai Lama of trying to undermine its rule in Tibet and says the visit is anti-China.
The Dalai Lama insists his visit is "non-political".
The Dalai Lama fled to India in 1959 when Chinese troops crushed an attempted uprising in Tibet.
In August this year, the Dalai Lama, 74, made another hugely controversial visit - to Taiwan, another region China considers part of its territory.
'Internal interference'
The freezing temperatures in Tawang did not deter thousands of villagers taking to the streets to catch a glimpse of the Dalai Lama.
Tibetan prayer flags fluttered and monks struck cymbals and played horns as the Dalai Lama headed to the Tibetan monastery, the second largest of its kind in India, to hold a prayer session.



In pictures: Dalai Lama visits

"We are very pleased and blessed to have his holiness here," one monk, Sarwang Lama, told AFP news agency.
Some pilgrims had walked for as long as five days to be there.
One, Dorji Wangdi, told Associated Press: "If I can just see him once in my lifetime, then I am not afraid to die."
Arunachal Pradesh was the first stop during the Dalai Lama's flight from Tibet in 1959, and he said he felt close ties to the region. This is only his fifth visit in 50 years.
He said Beijing's accusations that his visit was anti-China and damaging to India-China ties were "baseless".
"My visit to Tawang is non-political and aimed at promoting universal brotherhood and nothing else," the Dalai Lama said.
Arunachal Pradesh's Chief Minister Dorjee Khandu said Beijing had "no right to interfere in India's internal matters".
The trip comes just weeks after Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh visited Arunachal Pradesh.
China strongly criticised that trip, accusing Mr Singh of ignoring its concerns.

http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/8349010.stm



my own comments:

the Dalai Lama has long been a symbol of Tibetan independence since China annexed the region in the 1950s,he fled through the passes of the Himalayas via Tawang in Arunachal Pradesh and eventually settled in Dharamsala in Himachal Pradesh.China's claim on Arunachal Pradesh along with the rest of Tibet is ultimately rooted in the annexation of Tibet by the Yuan Dynasty who were Mongols and the Qing Dynasty who were Manchu, descendants of the Jurchen tribes who were defeated by Chinggis Khan in the early 13th Century.

However the roots of the current dispute lay in the days of British India,when the McMahon Line was set out between Tibet and India.China has not recognised this border and it was one of the reasons why 15 years after the independence of India, Aksai Chin was annexed by China despite Nehru's policy of "Hindi-Chini Bhai Bhai" (India and China are brothers).The lessons of this war are still fresh in the minds of many in the Indian military and they have remained constantly on guard against a repetition of such an invasion again.

Iran's political situation

I have been able to keep in contact with a few Iranians in Ahvaz and Tehran during the current political situation in Iran.From what I have gathered there is resentment against Ahmadinejad's antics which has been viewed as intensely embarrassing for Iran's image.However I think it would be wrong to think that they would be overly pro-West, if Mousavi got into power but they might be more receptive to a compromise over Iran's nuclear program.

The key players are:



Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, born in Aradan to a family of carpet painters and later studied at a university in Tehran where he became a strong supporter of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini and his velayat-e-faqih (rule of the jurists),he is notorious for his supposed involvement in the Iran hostage crisis and supervising some of the torturers in prisons across Iran.He has risen to international fame since his victory on a wave of populist votes in 2005 and has been admired by some and loathed by others for his comments towards Israel and the West



Ali Khamenei, born in Mashad and is half Azeri, he became a cleric and rose through the ranks to eventually became a close of confident of Khomeini, this of course wasn't without its risk as was shown by the attempt on his life in 1981 by the MEK (Mujaheddin-e-Khalq),after Khomeini's death in 1989, he was able to become Supreme Leader,he has tried to balance the Conservatives and Reformists in principle but in reality he is more favourable to the Conservative cause as was shown by his continual backing of Ahmadinejad



Mohammad,Ali, and Sadeq Larijani, They belong to the most powerful family in Iran today, grew up in Qom and were very studious from a young age and have a far more cultured background than Ahmadinjad.However they are opposed to Western Secularism but despite this they weren't very radical even during the Islamic Revolution in 1979,unsurpisingly the Larjani brother have not been particular friendly with Ahmadinejad as a result but they remain strong supporters of Khamenei



Mir Hossein Mousavi, born in Khameneh and is a relative of Khamenei, he actively supported the Islamic Republic of Iran and helped to establish it,during Iran's first great crisis after the Revolution, he emerged to lead the country during the Iran-Iraq War for which he is still remembered.Despite this since Khomeini's death, he has clashed with Khamenei over numerous issues which led him to align with Khatami.He has risen to international fame since 2009, with his widely reported opposition to Khamenei and Ahmadinejad



Mohammed Khatami, born in Ardakan, he studied in Esfahan,Tehran and Qom before serving a representative in the Iranian legislature,he was able to use to run as a presidential candidate in 1997 and won the election.During his tenure as President, he pursued a more reformist approach to Iranian politics and wished to reform Iran along more democratic lines although he was opposed by hardliners in the government thus his work was unfinished when he left office in 2005.He has again reemerged as a strong supporter of his long time friend, Mir Hossein Mousavi and has become part of his "Green Path of Hope" opposition group.He is remembered for promoting a "dialogue of civilisations" in response to Samuel Huntington's "Clash of Civilisations"



Mehdi Karroubi, born in Aligourdaz and is an ethnic Lur, he became a cleric after taking religious studies in Qom and Tehran, After the revolution he was opposed to Rasfanjani's presidency but has continued to support the rights of all Iranian citizens and is now a supporter of Mousavi.



Hossein Ali Montazeri, born in Najafabad, he studied in Qom under Khomeini and went on to be involved in the Islamic Revolution in 1979 and was even appointed Khomeini's successor, however after Khomeini's death,his liberal views led Khamenei to be appointed Supreme Leader instead.He remained a strong opponent of Khamenei and Mahmoud Ahmadinejad,he disputed the 2009 election results.Montazeri passed away on 19th December 2009



Akbar Hashemi Rasfanjani, born in Nough, comes from a rural background but was able to become President in 1989 after Khomeini's death, he is a conservative but does advocate a free market economy,and a moderate position towards the West but is authoritarian domestically, however he has been be accused of corruption.After the 2009 election, his daughter did participate in the protests but was arrested like many other protesters.

Welcome to my blog

I would like to introduce myself, my name is Azeem

I was born in New Delhi, India where I lived in Ansari Nagar.I moved to Hong Kong and lived in Pokfulam and then I moved to the UK and started living in London,where I have been ever since.

I am currently studying Politics with International Relations at Kent University